Urban Morphology of Dhaka City Spatial Dynamics of Growing City and the Urban Core Essay Example

Urban Morphology of Dhaka City: Spatial Dynamics of Growing City and the Urban Core Essay Urban Morphology of Dhaka City: Spatial Dynamics of Growing City and the Urban Core Prof. Dr. Farida Nilufar Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) Email: [emailprotected] com [Paper presented on the International Seminar on The History, Heritage and Urban Issues of Capital Dhaka, on the occasion of the Celebration of 400 years of the Capital Dhaka, Organized by the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 17-19 February 2010. Accepted for Publication of Asiatic Society on the Celebration of 400 years of the Capital Dhaka, Organized by the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Accepted in June 2010] ABSTRACT: The fundamental morphological characteristics of Dhaka city is described here from a historical perspective. Since its establishment, Dhaka represents domination of an organic spatial character in general. Here in Dhaka, two dominant urban patterns are conspicuous within the successive stages of growth; they are the historical core or old Dhaka and the later development towards the north, known as new Dhaka. Besides, a few planned additions are also featured in this city. Thus, this study identifies that four major spatial patterns are co-existent in Dhaka; they are indigenous and informal developments; colonial and planned interventions. The essential morphological characteristics of these patterns, which are prevalent in Dhaka, are described here. Major discussion concentrates on the global spatial structure of the organic city and investigates the dynamics of its growth and the characteristics of morphological transformations through the ages. We will write a custom essay sample on Urban Morphology of Dhaka City: Spatial Dynamics of Growing City and the Urban Core specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Urban Morphology of Dhaka City: Spatial Dynamics of Growing City and the Urban Core specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Urban Morphology of Dhaka City: Spatial Dynamics of Growing City and the Urban Core specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer It analyzes the axial maps of Dhaka and determines from ‘integration’ analysis [based on the method of Space Syntax as developed in UCL, London, 1984] that the spatial structure of the organic city has been shaping an urban core which coincides with the functional centers of the city in different historical stages. Thus the spatial dynamics of Dhaka and its core corresponds to a social history which remains as the underlying force behind the spontaneous formation of its morphological structure. . 1. Introduction: The city of Dhaka has arisen more or less spontaneously over four hundred years. In the history, the evolution of Dhaka as a town goes back to the 16th century. With the passage of time the entire city grew in a natural way, although it has some parts which have been deliberately created in the recent past by the designers, albeit in a fragmented way. Its different phases have developed and structured at different historical stages based on the vigour of that particular period of development. Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, has grown from a small Hindu trading centre to a metropolis. Its antiquity can be traced back to 7th century A. D. ; however, Dhaka rose to prominence only after it became the capital of Bengal[1] during the Mughal rule under the Muslims in 1610 A. D. For a long period of its growth Dhaka was confined within the medieval Mughal core. An early impetus in the growth of a new town outside the historic city, however, started in around 1764[2]. In spite of that only after 1906, on the declaration of Dhaka as the capital of the province of East Bengal and Assam, a spectacular development of the city has been manifested in the Ramna green belt outside the historic core in the newer part of Dhaka. Historian Bradely-Birt noted that a modern city has begun to rise. [Bradely-Birt, 1975: 261] This drift of development was impeded several times due to different political and economic reasons. However, after the independence of Bangladesh new Dhaka has experienced a phenomenal growth. Within the successive stages of growth, two dominant urban patterns are conspicuous in Dhaka; they are the historical core or old Dhaka and the later development towards the north, known as new Dhaka. The historic kernel of old Dhaka retains the traditional features it has inherited from the past. The natural endowment of its organic morphology is valued for its ‘indigenous’ urban pattern. The residential neighbourhoods of old Dhaka, locally known as ‘Mohallas’, which were the enclaves of caste or craft groups are considered by many to be a morphological archetype of this historic city. Outside the historic core, the newer part is a post colonial development, thereby sometimes metaphorically understood as a function of modernization. In the newer extensions of Dhaka, similar organic morphological patterns are prevalent which have been spontaneously developed without any rigid planning proposal. In terms of established planning principles the character of these areas is seen as a confused urban sprawl. There remains quite a lot of prejudice attached to these unplanned areas; and they are customarily described as ‘informal’ development. Nevertheless, these new generation organic areas are generally developed according to the aspiration of their inhabitants just like that of the historic city itself. The demarcation of the old and new town was geographically emphasized by the placement of the State Railway line which gave an idea about the existence of the main historic city in the quarters to the south and west of the loop formed by the Railway line. Ahmed, 1986: 99] To some people, to call the historical part old seems to be a general misconception about it; however, there is no doubt about the extensive livability and usability of the older part even in this century, and it is well understood that being a meaningful and living form, despite the loss of official and political patronage, the old city did not fade away but was thrived and enhanced. For this reason it is sometimes claimed that old city is as contemporary as the new city. [Khan, 1982: 1. 1] After traveling around fifty Indian cities including Dhaka in 1915-1919, Sir Patrick Geddes advocated that understanding the past is the first step in planning the present and future. [Spodek, 1993: 256] Geddes further added that The diagnostic survey . . . seeks to unravel the old city’s labyrinth and discern how this has grown up. Though, like all organic growths, this may at first seem confused to our modern eyes, that have for so long been trained to a mechanical order, gradually a higher form of order can be discerned the order of life in development . . In city planning then, we must constantly keep in view the whole city, old and new alike in all its aspects and at all its levels. The transition in an Indian city, from narrow lanes and earthen dwellings to small streets, great streets and buildings of high importance and architectural beauty, forms an inseparably interwoven structure. Once this is understood, the city plan ceases to appear instead as a great chessboard on which the manifold game of life is in active progress. [Geddes, 1919 as in Tyrwhitt 1947: 26-27] The evolutionary layering of urban form and meaning which Geddes uncovered as a town planner needs to be explored in historic studies of Dhaka. This article initially tries to identify the primary spatial patterns existing in Dhaka since its inception. Moreover, it aims to investigate the spatial dynamics of urban growth of Dhaka by analyzing the configuration of the urban grid and the resultant urban form in its historical perspective. It tries to pinpoint how the cumulative process of growth and consolidation has influenced the organic spatial structure of Dhaka. Fig: 1] It also endeavors to reveal the fundamental relation between configuration of space in an organic city like Dhaka and the way that it functions. 3. Urban Spatial Patterns in Dhaka Today’s Dhaka represents a composite form developed through ages. Its fundamental organic spatial homogeneity is interrupted at times by the patches of grid patterns. It is observes that there are five distinctive and co-existent u rban arrangements are prevalent in Dhaka. These can also be marked as ecological units, which are i] the old city ii] Civil Lines iii] New Indigenous or Informal communities; iv] the Planned Schemes and v] the Squatters’ Clusters. The squatters’ clusters are mostly transient in nature. However, the spatial pattern of the other four ecological types is discussed here. [Fig. 2 3] 3. 1 Indigenous Historic Structure Its organic character of the historic part is particularly distinctive with the densely built-up areas in comparison to the looseness of the later developments. Thus, like most Indian towns, the historical spatial structure of old Dhaka remains as the relic of the past. The pattern that exists in the old city is the winding and intricate street network and the walls defining the houses. The streets in the historic part were narrow. They were continuously twisted in and out, and were tortuous to an extreme degree in some places. The dead-end passages sometimes cut deep inside the urban block presenting a series of sharp turns. These were found indiscriminately along both the thoroughfares and the alleys. This pattern is more persistent in old city. However, a few long lines passed through the residential areas, which gave rise to another type of urban pattern e. g. Shankhari Bazaar Road, Tanti Bazaar Road. These were mainly the commercial interfaces of the city; and such areas have no lanes and by lanes as the access are from single bazaar streets. These streets are defined by closely spaced buildings in contrast to the former pattern where buildings are loosely spaced. Thus two distinct urban patterns exist in the old city. [Khan, 1982] However, the urban blocks of the latter type took more usual form of an accumulation of burgage plots whilst that of the former were divided by the dominant system of land holdings into smaller rectangular areas or segments. Fig. 3a] 2. 2. Colonial Interventions Civil lines A general grid pattern with broad traversing streets and rectangular blocks was proposed for the modernization of the historic city of Dhaka by Dr. Henry Charles Cutcliff, a British reformer. A radical engineering approach was needed in order to drive the broad straight streets through the crowded confusion of the city quarters. Although the scheme was not adopted in its entirety, it seems that all the later improvement of Dhaka was essentially based upon it. Ahmed, 1986: 182] In a later period Patrick Geddes was sensitive in dealing with historic areas and emphasized the ameliorative change through ‘conservative surgery’. [Geddes, 1917] Therefore, except in the northern extension of the historic core in and around Ramna area representing an orthogonal grid, the remaining historic city appears as organic. [Fig: 2] Consequently, the colonial city of Dhaka is not that visible as their intervention was limited within the linear civil line development along a few streets and the grid pattern of the Paltan [Cantonment]. Gupta claims that whereas the presidency towns were wholly planned on the grid in Europe, contemporary British Indian towns had only small sections planned, and subsequent growth was by accretion, in an ad hoc manner, by taking in adjacent villages. [Gupta, 1991: 596] However, the civil lines in the sub-continental cities were laid out as the British Precinct in the mid nineteenth century. Minto Road, Hare Road, Bailey Road, and Park Road are such developments in Dhaka outside the historic core. Their arrangement represents a formal and spacious one which is totally different in look from the dense development of the previous time. These were like Victorian suburbs characterized by low-density, horizontal development and broad tree lined roads giving access to a system of large compounds containing spacious single Bungalows in each plot. However, such pattern is being extinguished from the present urban form of Dhaka. 2. 3. New Indigenous Communities Informal Layout Another socio-spatial idiom in Dhaka is that of the upgraded indigenous neighbourhood, such areas like Kalabagan, Kathalbagan, Razabazaar, Mogbazaar, Malibagh etc. [Fig. c] They are labyrinthine mixture of lanes, by-lanes and cul-de-sacks like old Dhaka but wider and less intricate than the older city roads. They seem like the representations of traditional indigenous urban developments in the setting of a modern background. However, the formation of the blocks and main streets mainly followed the proposals of the Master Plan of 1959 and appear as longer and wider lines in the city structure. The inner roads or alleys are again narrow and winding o nes. Mostly they are organic in growth as they generate with the increasing plot division. Land uses are of a mixed type, however residential use gets prominence. The main thoroughfares become the major shopping strips and most buildings are designed to accommodate shops at the ground level. Generally the land use pattern resembles the old city rather than the civil lines. House design combines modern and traditional features in a harmonious blend. They cover the whole plot most of the time leaving narrow strips beside boundary walls as dictated by the planning authority but not like the courtyard houses of the old Dhaka. These popular settlements are very much like the old city development but the planning rules gave them a new look. 2. 4. Planned Schemes Geometric Layout The grid pattern of roads was introduced in the city for the first time in Wari and Gandaria in 1885. The state sponsored planned extensions for the upper classes were contrasted with the unsanctioned, spontaneous, tawdry development in the old city. Comprehensively planned residential areas of Dhanmondi, Gulshan, Banani, Baridhara and Uttara etc. re the successors of this type. Their street layout follows a rigid gridiron pattern with some semicircular arcs. [Fig. 3b] The land formation exerted a little influence on the new development and this why they are found globally to be in some way more logical or imposed upon their surroundings. The high space and service standards and physical designs of these schemes have an aura of Western suburbia, modernity, and status. They essentially follow the civil lines model, though without th e Imperial grandeur. Such planned schemes were generally situated at the fringes when the plans were undertaken; however now a days they are surrounded by the high density low income living due to the increase of population. 3. Spatial Dynamics of Growing City: Urban core and functional pattern in Dhaka Above the levels of technology and economic condition of the population, the patterns of areal expansion and the urban form of Dhaka have been dominated largely by the physical configuration of the landscape in and around the city, particularly the river system and the height of land in relation to flood level. Islam, 1996: 191] Thus the ground plan of Dhaka shows a less systematic form possessing a kind of homogeneity depending on the continued adaptation to the land morphology and also possibly to the culturally derived patterns in the historic core. Thus guided by the natural determinants, however, the demand of its dwellers shaped it as a city of variety. The shifting pattern of land use distribution, mainly that of commercial activities, in Dhaka seems not follow the categories commonly used by the literature of city planning and urbanization for western cities and even specifically for south-east Asian cities. Mollah, 1976: 39] Although it is claimed that the generalized functional growth pattern of Dhaka is concentric around the business districts [Chowdhury, 1981: 15], the character of – Concentric Zones seems not to be applicable here because the phenomena they describe assume consistency and continuity of a feature, whereas Dhaka is characterized by discontinuities of factors and multiplicity of sectors and circuits. Indeed, historians assert that the fundamental source of the life of Dhaka had been determined by political considerations as these have unfolded over time. Ahsan, 1991: 397] In fact, Dhaka faced six major phases of socio-economic and political changes during its evolution. The following part of discussion seeks to understand the morphological changes o f the urban core of spatial structure of Dhaka since historical time by analyzing available maps from 1859 2007 and simulating two previous stages [Pre-mughal and Mughal Period]. Two maps are available from Pakistan period; one is of 1952 at the inception of Pakistan with the indigenous city and the colonial development seen as a whole; and the other is of 1960. Besides, four maps are considered from the Bangladesh era [Maps of 1973, 1987 and 1995 are prepared by the Survey of Bangladesh’, and Map of 2007 is prepared by DCC]. This study tries to pinpoint how the cumulative process of growth and consolidation has influenced the spatial structure of Dhaka at a global scale by using the tool of Space Syntax'[3] as developed by AAS, Bartlett, UCL, London. Here the spatial structure of Dhaka city is modeled with axial lines following the conception of Space Syntax and the axial maps[4] are analyzed with Depthmap[5] to identify the integration core[6]of the spatial structure of the whole city. The brief historical overview has been highlighted the fact that as Dhaka has grown in size, scale and extent, and the distribution of urban functions has evolved and changed according to the dictates of political and commercial considerations. However, it is not clear whether these changes were arbitrary, or whether there was any logic to the pattern of relocation. In what follows, integration analysis by the Space Syntax will explore the way in which urban growth brought about changes in the configuration of the urban grid, and hence in the distribution of integration throughout the city. These purely configurational changes are considered in relation to the changing pattern of urban functions, to see if they relate to one another in a systematic way. This study tries to explore the fundamental relation between the configuration of space in Dhaka and the way that it functions. Finally, it determines the spatial structure of Dhakas urban core and the process of its transformation through ages. 3. 1. Pre-Mughal Hindu Core of Dhaka [before 1608]: Dhaka was a small Hindu trading centre in Pre-Mughal time. As revealed from cartographic evidences the area lying to the east, north-east and south-east f Babur Bazaar going up to the Dholai River on the northern bank of the Buriganga seems to face the old town. It is now thought that Dhaka was confined between the Dholai Canal [on the north east boundary of the city] and the Buriganga River from its inception until 1608, which ushered in the Mughal period. The oldest city consisted of a few market centers like Lakshmi Bazaar, B angla Bazaar, Shankhari Bazaar, Tanti Bazaar etc. along with a few localities of craftsman and businessmen like Patua-toli, Kumar-toli etc. [Dani, 1956: 7] The centre is thought to have been near the Bangla Bazaar. According to Dani, the main business area was in Sadar Ghat and Victoria Park, which had extended upto Nawabpur Road in later part of 15th century [Ahsan, 1991:397- 398]. No detailed maps from this period are available on which to develop an axial model. However, in order to remake the picture of the past, a reconstruction of the Hindu core has been developed here from the oldest detailed map of Dhaka in 1859 [prepared by Rennell]. [7] The spatial analysis of axial map shows that in the pre-Mughal Dhaka, the global integration core was formed with Nawabpur Road-Johnson Road leading towards the Sadar Ghat. It also touched part of Islampur Road, Bangshal Road and Shankhari Bazar Road. This loop like core coincided with the functional heart of the city as described by Dani. [Fig. 4] 3. 2. Mughal Dhaka [1608- 1764]: Dhaka rose to prominence only after it became the capital of Bengal during the Mughal rule in 1610 AD. [Bhattacharya, 1935: 36-63] The then ‘New Dhaka’ was inaugurated by Islam Khan with the establishment of Lalbagh Fort in 1679, Chandnighat and the Chawk [the market place beside the old fort at present Central Jail]; and it continued to grow under the subsequent Mughal Subaders until 1717. Dani, 1956: 31] According to Manrique, a visitor to the city, in 1640 the city stretched for 4. 5 miles along the Buriganga river with a population of about 200 thousand [excluding the Europeans and the visitors] [Taifoor, 1956: 15] which raised to 9,00,000 in 1700. During this period, the needs of administration and defence coupled with flourishing commercial activities led to Dhaka’s growth, and from a suburban town Dhaka became a metropolis. [Khan Atiquallah, 1965: 2-6] In time, Dhaka grew beyond the limit of the Dholai Canal; and the Mughal Dhaka had encompassed the pre-Mughal core. [Fig. ] In 1640 the expansion to the west [to Maneswar and Hazaribagh] and the north [up to Phulbaria, on the fringe of the Ramna area] was significant; besides it’s eastern limit was up to Narandiu [Narinda] [Manrique as in Chowdhury and Faruqui, 1991: 48] Bradley-Birt described as away beyond for fourteen miles, the city stretched as far as Tongi, a vast labyrinth of streets and villages, the camps of armies and all that followed in their terrain [Bradley-Birt, 1975: 159]. However, the Mughal ruins identified the extension of the Mughal city mainly to the west of the Fort and following the river bank. The expansion occurred with the Old Fort in the centre. In this growth of Mughal Dhaka the general characteristics of a Mughal city are noticeable. The Fort served as the nerve centre of the city, and the adjacent market places and the surrounding mohallas growing out of the residential needs follow the well established pattern with winding roads. The areas to the south and south-west of the Fort up to the river bank grew mainly as commercial areas and the areas to the north and north- east grew as residential areas. Chowdhury Faruqui, 1991: 48] The Chawk with the mosque was the main market place of Mughal Dhaka and the river front was transformed into the main commercial area. However, the older part of the city also gained importance by the establishment of European factories in the vicinity of Babur Bazaar and Bangla Bazaar. [Ahsan, 1991: 398] There were two principal roads/thoroughfares in the city. One running parallel to the river from Victoria park to the western fringe of th e city and other ran from the park to Tejgaon[8]. The glory of Dhaka came to an end by the early part of the 18th century with the shifting of the provincial capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad in 1717. In this period the activities of the European traders increased. So the life of Dhaka city was still thriving and it continued in its earlier setting without any farther expansion. [Chowdhury Faruqui, 1991: 52] In the absence of a detailed map of Mughal Dhaka, a second reconstruction was developed during this research based on a combination of historical documents and the findings of other researchers who have tried to define the boundary of the Mughal capital, Dhaka. It too is based on the original map of 1859. The spatial analysis of Mughal Dhaka produced a global integration core along Bangshal Road which was linked up with Nawabpur Road. Thus, in the Mughal period, the integration core lay on the northern periphery of the city seemingly as an extension of the pre-Mughal global core. The historical statement that the Fort served as the nerve centre of the city does not fit with the syntactic analysis; rather the global integration core connected the Mughal centre [the Chawk and the old fort] with the Hindu core [Bangla Bazaar surrounding the present Court House area]. The integration core therefore connected the administrative and commercial foci as described earlier by historians, but seems to leave out the city life on the river side. When the river was also considered as a route, and connected to the street system through its ports the global core has a dramatic shift from the northern periphery towards the river front which reveals a probable importance of the river on the life of Dhaka at that period. [Nilufar, 1997:111] However, the spatial analysis reveals that the integration core of Mughal Dhaka was an extension of the pre-Mughal core. It also connected the Mughal and pre-Mughal functional cores with bazaar streets. However, Islampur Road had not yet gained spatial importance globally. [Nilufar, 1997: 113] 3. 3 Dhaka in the Pre-Colonial Period- Rule of the East India Company [1764-1857]: With the fall of the Mughal Empire in 1707 Dhaka faced a serious decline in economy, population and administrative importance which caused the subsequent contraction of urban area. An English trading company attained political domination and took over the control of Dhaka city in 1764. Most of the commercial activities which survived were carried out in the enclosure of Chawk [Ahsan, 1991: 401]; and the old fort and its surroundings remained the heart of the city where all the central and provincial offices were also located. [Ahmed, 1986: 130-143] In 1800 population of Dhaka declined to 200 thousands, like that of 160 years back. According to Rennell the city was four miles long and two and half miles wide in 1793 which reduced to three miles in length and one and half mile in width in 1814. Mamun, 1990: 49] In 1859, Rennell prepared a map of Dhaka city as extending from Narayanganj to Iron Bridge and from the Buriganga river to Nimtali Kothi [present Asiatic Society]. In this map the jungles indicate a decline in population and a subsequent contraction of urban area. In fact the decline in economy, population and administrative importance brought about shrinkage in the area of Dhaka city. [Fig 6] The axial analysis of the spatial system of 1859s Dhaka depicted th at the city had densely inhabited areas in the pre-Mughal Hindu core extending towards the Mughal centre [the Chawk]. At this period, most of the areas to the west of the Mughal centre were segregated. The global integration core took the shape of a loop connecting the pre-Mughal global core to the Chawk, and also leading towards north [in Purana Paltan area] thus reaching out towards the extending city. The river side also got importance in the spatial structure. This phase might be called the period of unification, when the pre-Mughal and Mughal centres were joined, and projected outwards in the direction of the future city and the river. The most integrated line was Bangshal Road, and the next was Nawabpur Road, the two bazaar streets. Thus, the global integration core largely coincided with the commercial interface which was the focus of the city life. Again, the administrative areas were also linked to the core at its southern edge. In order to avoid the influence of the uninhabited garden areas in the north, the built-up areas of the 1859 spatial structure were analyzed separately but no changes occurred in the picture of integration with respect to Islampur Road. Fig. 8] This might indicate that this bazaar street could not gain any significant global importance in the city structure around 1859. However, Islampur Road and a number of bazaar streets were locally important. [Nilufar, 1997: 112] 3. 4. British Colonization of Dhaka [1858-1947]: The old Mughal town did not expand with British rule, but it underwent a vast physical renewal following no definite plan. This transformed the medieval Dhaka into a modern c ity with metalled roads, open spaces, street lights and piped water supply. Ahmed, 1986:130-143] The State Railway was opened in 1885-86 and the rail line was laid through the city to connect it with areas outside Dhaka. The placement of the railway line gives an idea about the existence of the main city to the quarters south and west of the loop formed by the railway line. However, the building of a new town started beyond the rail road in Ramna. [Ahsan, 1991: 401] However, most of the residential quarters were within the historic core; and the river front and the area near the Victoria Park was a prized location for high class residents. Islam, 1996: 14] An irregular road pattern was prevalent to the south in the historic core; while the grid pattern of roads was introduced in the city for the first time in 1885 in Wari and Gandaria as planned residential areas. Hazaribagh, Nawabganj areas in the western quarter of the city, were developed in the same period as industrial areas. [ Chowdhury Faruqui, 1991: 54-55] Civil lines were also added beyond the city limit in 1906. The British crown shifted the administrative centre from the old fort area, and new buildings were constructed on a new site near Victoria Park, on the present site of the Court House. Ahmed, 1986: 141] From Mughal time the Chawk Bazaar had been the main centre of the citys trade and commerce in Dhaka, and it remained so after 1859. The business areas during this period extended towards the north by way of the Nawabpur Road into Ramna to serve the British bureaucrats who lived in the new town. [Ahsan, 1991: 402] In 1905, in the middle stage of the British era, Bengal was divided and Dhaka was chosen as the capital of the eastern part. [Islam, 1991: 197] Another significant incidence to the city of Dhaka was the foundation of Dhaka University in the vicinity of Ramna in 1921. Early records of the East India Company [1786] describe the city boundary as: Buriganga in south, Tongi in the north, Mirpur in the west and Postogola in the east. [Karim, 1964: 37] Although it was the overall limit of the city by the end of the 18th century, the area lying to the north of Mir Jumlas gate [near Ramna] was very sparsely populated. According to Rennell, the population decline which started from 1764 reached its lowest ebb in 1867 when the population reduced to 51,636. Since 1872 the population recorded a continuous growth. The spatial pattern was changed in this phase by the extensions at the periphery and by an increase in destiny within the built up areas with densely packed, short and tree-like broken lines. In the map of 1916[9], the global integration core was pushed towards the north near the Ramna Garden where the newly-planned, relatively orthogonal grid was being introduced. Thus the most integrated lines were in the area where the old [pre-British] part met the new [developed in the British era], which indicated a change in the social life of the city during the colonial period. [Fig. ] In order to have an idea about the life of the people who were living in the densely built up areas of the old city, the built up area in 1916 was analyzed syntactically without the colonial additions. [Fig . 8] In this analysis, the higher global integration values were attained by the bazaar streets, Islampur Road and Nawabpur Road. Thus the most integrated lines extended parallel to the river, forming a lin ear integration core which coincided with the functional core of the city. It seems that Islampur Road attained its spatial significance in the old city only from the colonial era. . 5. Dhaka as the Capital of Pakistan [1947-1971]: In 1947, the British Colony achieved its independence after two hundred years of colonization and Dhaka attained the status of the provincial capital of the East Pakistan. Unlike many colonial cities in India, the colonial influence on Dhaka could not be claimed as substantial. The overall expansion of the city began from 1947. [Huq, 1991: 428] Administrative, commercial and residential needs caused an influx of people and it resulted in a massive growth of the city. The city expanded mainly towards the north. Dhanmondi area, as previously adorned with paddy fields, lying towards the north-west fringe of Dhaka turned into a residential area after 1955. The Mirpur Road formed an axis and high lands on either side were occupied up to Mohammadpur and Mirpur. The high land available in north-east and north-west of Ramna within different pockets between the previously developed areas like Purana Paltan to Naya Paltan, Eskaton to Mogbazaar, Siddheswari and Kakrail to Kamlapur through Razarbagh and Santinager, Segun Bagicha all came to be occupied mostly by residential use. All these happened without any formal planning. Then the government founded Dacca Improvement Trust [DIT] in 1956 and started planning in a piecemeal manner: industrial district in Tejgaon, New Market in Azimpur, staff housing in Motijheel, high class residential area in Dhanmondi. However, at this stage there was no plan for the future growth. In the meanwhile Dhaka was becoming more and more unmanageable. So a Master Plan was eventually prepared by consultants in 1959 on behalf of DIT. 10] The DIT developed Gulshan model town

Abortion Essays (1825 words) - Fertility, RTT, Abortion, Free Essays

Abortion Essays (1825 words) - Fertility, RTT, Abortion, Free Essays Abortion Abortion In Roman times, abortion and the destruction of unwanted children was permissible, but as out civilization has aged, it seems that such acts were no longer acceptable by rational human beings, so that in 1948, Canada along with most other nations in the world signed a declaration of the United Nations promising every human being the right to life. The World Medical Association meeting in Geneve at the same time, stated that the utmost respect for human life was to be from the moment of conception. This declaration was re-affirmed when the World Medical Association met in Oslo in 1970. Should we go backwards in our concern for the life of an individual human being? The unborn human is still a human life and not all the wishful thinking of those advocating repeal of abortion laws, can alter this. Those of us who would seek to protect the human who is still to small to cry aloud for it's own protection, have been accused of having a 19th Century approach to life in the last third of the 20th Century. But who in reality is using arguments of a bygone Century? It is an incontrovertible fact of biological science - Make no Mistake - that from the moment of conception, a new human life has been created. Only those who allow their emotional passion to overide their knowledge, can deny it: only those who are irrational or ignorant of science, doubt that when a human sperm fertilizes a human ovum a new human being is created. A new human being who carries genes in its cells that make that human being uniquely different from any and other human being and yet, undeniably a member, as we all are, of the great human family. All the fetus needs to grow into a babe, a child, an old man, is time, nutrition and a suitable environment. It is determined at that very moment of conception whether the baby will be a boy or a girl; which of his parents he will look like; what blood type he will have. His whole heritage is forever fixed. Look at a human being 8 weeks after conception and you, yes every person here who can tell the difference between a man and a women, will be able to look at the fetus and tell me whether it is a baby boy or a girl. No, a fetus is not just another part of a women's body like an appendix or appendage. These appendages, these perfectly formed tiny feel belong to a 10 week developed baby, not to his or her mother. The fetus is distinct and different and has it's own heart beat. Do you know that the fetus' heart started beating just 18 days after a new life was created, beating before the mother even knew she was pregnant? By 3 months of pregnancy the developing baby is just small enough to be help in the palm of a man's hand but look closely at this 3 month old fetus. All his organs are formed and all his systems working. He swims, he grasps a pointer, he moves freely, he excretes urine. If you inject a sweet solution into the water around him, he will swallaw because he likes the taste. Inject a bitter solution and he will quit swallowing because he does not like the taste. By 16 weeks it is obvious to all, except those who have eyes but deliberately do not see, that this is a young human being. Who chooses life or death for this little one because abortion is the taking of a human life? This fact is undeniable; however much of the members of the Women's Liberation Movement, the new Feminists, Dr. Henry Morgentaler or the Canadian Medical Association President feel about it, does not alter the fact of the matter. An incontrovertible fact that cannot change as feelings change. If abortion is undeniably the taking of human life and yet sincere misguided people feel that it should be just a personal matter between a women and the doctor, there seems to be 2 choices open to them. (1) That they would believe that other acts of destruction of human beings such as infanticide

Interview with Dr. Michael Winters Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Interview with Dr. Michael Winters - Essay Example As a licensed practitioner of and a firm believer in the merits of logotherapy, the search for and discovery of meaning plays a significant role in Dr. Winters' professional, clinical, teaching, and research activities.The search for meaning has had a strong basis in Dr. Winters' background, as reflected by his two choices for a college major: Theater or Psychology. Broadway's loss was psychology's gain, as he found the search for meaning more lucrative and challenging than, in a sense, its interpretation. After undergraduate and Masteral studies at Purdue, he went to Tennessee for his doctorate at the University of Memphis in 1991.However, it was not until two years ago (in 2005) that he embraced logotherapy, which is based on Frankl's insights on the beneficial psychological effects of the search for and discovery of meaning in human experience (Frankl, 1984/19871998). Frankl has had a substantial impact on Dr. Winters' life and profession, and logotherapy research has become a hug e part of his academic and clinical practice. As a counseling strategy, he uses logotherapy, which fits with the question that he asks every time he faces any of his clients: "how do I help this person to help him/herself move forward" (Winters, 2007)Dr. Winters' extensive experience, however, does not limit his counseling strategy to logotherapy. ... Among college students, though, Dr. Winters addresses more faith-based issues in search of solutions. Dr. Winters is also an expert on clinical depression, and a considerable amount of time was spent during the interview discussing this topic. We started by discussing the symptoms, which are primarily anxiety, pessimism, and lethargy. When asked what the causes of depression are, he paused for several seconds before answering: "anything". Depression is a chemical reaction that affects the mind, and this can be triggered by anxieties over relationships (romantic or otherwise), emotional or physical or psychological trauma. Among young people, common triggers of depression are issues with parents, relationships, or friends, or the search for and development of individual identity. If there is what he could call a master variable that helps one to avoid depression, it is the value of social networking. He noted from his clinical and professional experience that people who know how to get the most out of their social relationships with family, friends, and a special other are farthest away from depression. I guess that an important consideration here is the sense of security that a person feels, allowing him/her to maintain their identity in social relationships, free of false expectations and desires to be what they are not. As Dr. Winters shares with his clients, if they are not happy and truly getting their needs in their relationships, then they should either end it or fix it, working on the issues unless there is violence. He encourages his clients in a depression to move beyond a definition of love that is based on what they could get out of a relationship to one

Management Information System. (Position Paper) Assignment

Management Information System. (Position Paper) - Assignment Example Voice via internet protocol (VOIP) telephones offer high-tech means for employees to connect (Legge, 1991). When it comes to inventory management, Syndicate Technological Company has adopted the urgency to ensure that there is adequate stock to meet demand without spending in more than they need. Systems for managing inventory that track the measure of each item a company keeps, triggering an order of extra stock when the quantities goes below a certain amount. These systems work effectively when the inventory management system is linked to a point-of-sale (POS) system. The POS system ensures a removal of item from the inventory count, the moment an item is sold, creating a closed information loop between all departments. Syndicate Technological Company keeps digital forms of documents on servers and other mass storage devices like flash disk, DVD’s among others. These documents become instantaneously accessible to everybody in the company, irrespective of their geographical locality. Syndicate Technological Company is able to store and preserve an incredible amount of chronological data economically, and employees profit from instantaneous access to the documents they want. Storage of data and information is only an advantage if that data can be used successfully. Syndicate Technological Company use that information part of their strategic design procedure as well as the tactical implementation of that approach (Sarngadharan & Minimol, 2010). Management Information Systems (MIS) aid Syndicate Technological Company to follow up on sales data, expenditures and yield levels. The statistics can be used to track viability over time, capitalize return on investment and find areas to improve. Syndicate Technological Company is adopting information technology to enhance its design and management of customer affiliations. Consumer Relationship Management (CRM) systems records every dealings a business has with a consumer, so that a more

Revisions of Foundations of the Development and Functions of Police Assignment

Revisions of Foundations of the Development and Functions of Police - Assignment Example The political policing era of policing embraced the watch-man style, which embodied police discretion, and control rather than prevention a system, which is distant from society (Ken, 2009). In terms of discretion, police chose whom to serve and protect at their judgment with reference to politicians who had immense control over them. The approach of dealing with crime was often questioned because of its reactive nature. The control of crime was based on controlling rather than prevention and this hugely led to crime escalation (Ken, 2009). Second was the legalistic style, which made law enforcement the only concern of the police at the expense of social problems; by advocating only for the enforcement of the law to the letter. Politicians enacted several Legislations to establish full-time control over the police. A good example is the 1844 law in New York City that aimed at putting police under the control of city politicians and the government (Ken, 2009). Such laws disregarded public view, as they were the preserve of the political class. The police had no interest at all about the social problems in the country. The main agenda was to enforce and implement the law to the letter. Finally was the service style whereby police conceptualized themselves as helpers of the country when crime or war occurred. Service delivery was considered as a favor to the society rather than an obligation. It is often well-known as the systematic policing practice whose mandate was to reform the political-oriented police practice (Ken, 2009). It embraced the three styles but implemented each of them completely different from the political approach. Discretion exercised early was limited by far. The police schedule became standardized, as officers were now required to enforce the law and make arrests based on the crime committed lieu of the political power-play (Ken, 2009). More efforts were evoked to prevent crime rather making injunctions only after crime

Fiber optics and its applications

Fiber optics and its applications INTRODUCTION Nothing in the world gives us more power and confidence than having information. The ability to communicate information is essential to achieve the successful advancement of humankind. Transmission of information is imperative to the expansion of our horizons. What does this all have to do with fiber optics? This research paper will cover the basis of fiber optics in terms of its transmission, communication, origin, uses and applications. Fiber optics transports light in a very directional way. Light is focused into and guided through a cylindrical glass fiber. Inside the core of the fiber light bounces back and forth at angles to the side walls, making its way to the end of the fiber where it eventually escapes. The light does not escape through the side walls because of total internal reflection. Why is fiber optics so important? Besides being a flexible conduit that is used to illuminate microscopic objects, fiber optics can also transmit information similarly to the way a copper wire can transmit electricity. However, copper transmits only a few million electrical pulses per second, compared to an optical fiber that carries up to a 20 billion light pulses per second. This means telephone, cable and computer companies can handle huge amounts of data transfers at once, much more than conventional wires can carry. Fiber optic cable was developed because of the incredible increase in the quantity of data over the past 20 years. Without fiber optic cable, the modern Internet and World Wide Web would not be possible. WHAT IS FIBER OPTICS? Fiber optics is extremely thin strands of purified glass that carry information from one point to another in the form of light. Unlike copper wire, fiber optics does not use electricity during transmission. Optical fibers can be either glass or plastic tubing capable of transmitting light, which is then converted into sound, speech or information. Fiber optic cables transmit a digital signal via pulses of light through the very thin strands of glass. A basic fiber optic system consists of: a transmitting device, which generates the light signal, an optical fiber cable, which carries the light, and a receiver, which accepts the light signal that was transmitted. A fiber optic strand is about the thickness of a human hair, about 120 micrometers in diameter and can carry as many as 20 billion light pulses per second. The fibers are bundled together to form optical bundles, which transmit the light signals over long distances up to 50 km without the need for repeaters. Each optic fiber is made up of three main parts: The core or the centre of the optical fiber is a very thin strand of glass that carries the light signal. The cladding is the optical material which reflects the light signals back into the core. This prevents the light from escaping and allows it to travel through the fiber. The outside jacket or buffer coating is made of a plastic material that protects the optical fiber from any moisture, corrosion and external damage. There are only two types of fiber optic cable: Glass fibers, which are more common, because they allow longer distance transmission and they are more efficient. Plastic optical fibbers are used in less technical applications and are normally used in very short-length transmissions. HOW ARE OPTICAL FIBERS MADE? Optical fibers are made of very pure glass. The glass core or centre is made of silica and is purified to minimise the loss of signal. It then gets coated to protect the fibers and to contain the light signals. The light signals carried by the optical cable consist of electrical signals that have been converted or changed into light energy. The following process is followed to manufacture the optical fibers: The Manufacturing of the Preform Blank The silica must first be purified before it can be spun into glass fibers. This process takes a long time and the silica is heated to very high temperatures and then distilled to purification. The sand is heated to a temperature that will change the silica into a gaseous state. The silica will then be combined with other materials called dopants, which will react with the silica (in its gaseous state) to form the fibers. All the solid impurities are removed and the gas is cooled to form the fiber material. A process called modified chemical vapour deposition (MCVD) is used to change the glass into the preform blank. During this process oxygen is bubbled through solutions of silicon chloride (SiCl4), germanium chloride (GeCl4) and other chemicals. The gas vapours are channelled to the inside of a synthetic silica quartz tube in a special lathe to form the cladding. While the lathe rotates a burning flame is moved back and forth on the outside of the tube. The extreme heat from the burner causes the following: The silicon and the germanium react with oxygen to form silicon dioxide (SiO2) and germanium dioxide (GeO2). The silicon dioxide and the germanium dioxide settles on the inside of the tube and it fuses together to form glass. The lathe turns continuously to allow the preform blank to be coated evenly. To maintain the purity of the glass a corrosion resistant plastic is used to accurately control the flow and the structure of the mixture. This process of manufacturing the preform blank takes a couple of hours. The preform blank is cooled and is inspected for quality through an inspection and control process. Drawing fibers from the Preform Blank After testing the preform, it is placed into a fiber drawing tower. The preform blank gets lowered into a furnace and is heated between 1,900 °C to 2,200 °C until the tip starts to melt an a molten blob starts to fall down. As it drops down, it cools and forms a strand. This strand is pulled through a sequence of coating cups (buffer applicators) and curing ovens using ultraviolet light, and then coiled onto a tractor-controlled reel. This process is accurately controlled using a laser micrometer to measure the thickness of the fiber. This information is then sent back to the tractor mechanism. The tractor mechanism pulls the fibers at a rate of 10 to 20m/sec and the finished product is wound onto a spool. A spool can contain more than 2,2km of optical fiber Testing the Finished Optical Fiber Once the optical fiber is manufactured it goes through a process of testing. The following tests are done: Tensile strength The fibers must withstand 100,000 lb/in2 or more Refractive index profile Determine that the core diameter, cladding dimensions and coating diameter are uniform. Screen also for optical defects. Attenuation Determine the extent that light signals of various wavelengths degrade or reduce over certain distances. Information carrying capacity (bandwidth) the number of signals that can be carried at one time (multi-mode fibers) Chromatic dispersion Spread of various wavelengths of light through the core, this is very important for bandwidth. Operating temperature/humidity range Determines the temperature and humidity that the fiber can withstand. Ability to conduct light underwater Important for undersea cables Once t ­he fibers have passed the quality control process, they are sold to telephone companies, cable companies and network providers. Currently many companies are replacing their old copper-wire-based systems with new fiber-optic-based systems to improve speed, capacity and clarity. TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS There are two types of optical fibers: Single Mode Fiber Single mode fibers transmit a single data stream. The core of the glass fiber is much finer than in multi-mode fibers. Light thus travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Data transmission modes are higher, and the distances that single mode fiber can cover can be over 50 times longer than multi-mode fibers. Telephone and cable television networks install millions of kilometers of this fiber every year. Multi-Mode Fiber Multi-mode fibers allow different data streams to be sent simultaneously over a particular fiber. The glass fiber has a slightly larger diameter to allow light to be sent through the fiber at different angles. An LED or laser light source is used in the 50 micron and 62.5 micron fiber optic cables. They are also used in the same networking applications. The main difference between the two is that 50 micron fiber can support 3 times the bandwidth of 62.5 micron fiber. The 50 micron fiber also supports longer cable runs than 62.5 micron cable. Simplex cable consists of only one single fiber optic strand. The data can only be transmitted in one direction. The duplex cable is made up of two fiber optic strands that run side-by-side. One strand runs from transmit to receive and the other strand joins receive to transmit. This allows communication in both directions (bi-directional) between devices. Some optical fibers can be made from plastic. These fibers have a large core (0.04 inches or 1 mm diameter) and transmit visible red light (wavelength = 650 nm) from LEDs. Due to their inferior optical properties, plastic fiber optic (POF) strands and cables are not suitable for extended data transmission. HOW DOES A FIBER OPTIC CABLE WORK? Traditionally when we sent data transmissions over copper cables we transmit electrons over a copper conductor. Fiber optic cables transmit a digital signal via pulses of light through a very thin strand of glass. The fiber strands are extremely thin, not much thicker than a human hair. The basic fiber optic transmission system consists of three basic components: Transmitter fiber optic cable receiver A transmitter is connected to the one end of the fiber cable. Electronic pulses are converted by the transmitter into light pulses and the optical signal gets sent through the fiber cable. A receiver on the other end decodes the optical signal into digital pulses. The core of the cable is surrounded by a cladding which reflects the light back into the core and eliminates light from escaping the cable. This is called total internal reflection. When light is sent through the core of a fiber optic cable, the light constantly bounces off the cladding, which is highly reflective, like a mirror-lined wall. The cladding does not absorb any light allowing complete internal reflection and allowing the light to travel far distances without losing its intensity. The discovery of lasers influenced the development of fiber optics. Lasers and LEDs can generate an enormous amount of light in a very small area, which can successfully used in fiber optics. Laser diodes are complex semiconductors that convert an electrical current into light. The process of converting the electrical signal into light is far more efficient because it generates less heat than an ordinary light bulb. Reasons for using laser diodes in fiber optics: laser diodes are very small laser diodes are highly reliable and have a long life laser diodes have high radiance laser diodes emit light into a very small area laser diodes can be turned on and off at very high speeds ADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTICS The use of fiber optics is fast becoming the medium of choice for telecommunication systems, television transmission and data networks. Fiber optic cables have a multitude of advantages and benefits over the more traditional methods of information systems, such as copper or coaxial cables. Speed One of the greatest benefits to using fiber optic systems is the capacity and speed of such a system. Light travels faster than an electrical system which allows faster delivery and reception of information. Fiber optic cables also have a much higher capacity for bandwidth than the more traditional copper cables. Immunity to electromagnetic interference Coaxial cables have a tendency for electromagnetic interference, which renders them less effective. Fiber optics is not affected by external electrical signals, because the data is transmitted with light. Security Optical systems are more secure than traditional mediums. Electromagnetic interference causes coaxial cables to leak information. Optical fiber makes it impossible to remotely detect the signal being transmitted within the cable. The only way to do so is by actually accessing the optical fiber itself. Accessing the fiber requires intervention that is easily detectable by security surveillance. These circumstances make fiber extremely attractive to governments, banks and companies requiring increased security of data. Fire prevention Copper wire transmission can generate sparks, causing shortages and even fire. Because fiber optical strands use light instead of electricity to carry signals, the chance of an electrical fire is eliminated. This makes fiber optics an exceptionally safe form of wiring and one of the safest forms of data transmission. Data signalling Fiber optic systems are much more effective than coaxial or copper systems, because there is minimal loss of data. This can be credited to the design of optical fibers, because of the principle of total internal reflection. The cladding increases the effectiveness of data transmission significantly. There is no crosstalk between cables, e.g. telephone signals from overseas using a signal bounced off a communications satellite, will result in an echo being heard. With undersea fiber optic cables, you have a direct connection with no echoes. Unlike electrical signals in copper wires the light signals from one fiber do not interfere with those of other fibers in the same cable. This means clearer phone conversations or TV reception. Less expensive Several kilometers of optical cable can be made far cheaper than equivalent lengths of copper wire. Service, such as the internet is often cheaper because fiber optic signals stay strong longer, requiring less power over time to transmit signals than copper-wire systems, which need high-voltage transmitters. Large Bandwidth, Light Weight and Small Diameter Modern applications require increased amounts of bandwidth or data capacity, fiber optics can carry much larger bandwidth through a much smaller cable and they arent prone to the loss of information. With the rapid increase of bandwidth demand, fiber optics will continue to play a vital role in the long-term success of telecommunications. Space constraints of many end-users are easily overcome because new cabling can be installed within existing duct systems. The relatively small diameter and light weight of optical cables makes such installations easy and practical. Easy Installation and Upgrades Long lengths of optical cable make installation much easier and less expensive. Fiber optic cables can be installed with the same equipment that is used to install copper and coaxial cables. Long Distance Signal Transmission The low attenuation and superior signal capacity found in optical systems allow much longer intervals of signal transmission than metallic-based systems. Metal based systems require signal repeaters to perform satisfactory. Fiber optic cables can transmit over 100km with no active or passive processing. Even greater distances are being investigated for the future. To use fiber optics in data systems have proven to be a far better alternative to copper wire and coaxial cables. As new technologies are developed, transmission will become even more efficient, assuring the expansion of telecommunication, television and data network industries. DISADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTICS Despite the many advantages of fiber optic systems, there are some disadvantages. The relative new technology of fiber optic makes the components expensive. Fiber optic transmitters and receivers are still somewhat expensive compared to electrical components. The absence of standardisation in the industry has also limited the acceptance of fiber optics. Many industries are more comfortable with the use of electrical systems and are reluctant to switch to fiber optics. The cost to install fiber optic systems is falling because of an increase in the use of fiber optic technology. As more information about fiber optics is made available to educate managers and technicians, the use of fiber optics in the industry will increase over time. The advantages and the need for more capacity and information will also increase the use of fiber optics. APPLICATIONS OF FIBER OPTICS As the popularity of optical fibers continue to grow, so does their applications and practical uses. Fiber optic cables became more and more popular in a variety of industries and applications. Communications / Data Storage Since fiber optics are resistant to electronic noise, fiber optics has made significant advances in the field of communications. The use of light as its source of data transmission has improved the sound quality in voice communications. It is also being used for transmitting and receiving purposes. Military Optical systems offer more security than traditional metal-based systems. The magnetic interference allows the leak of information in the coaxial cables. Fiber optics is not sensitive to electrical interference; therefore fiber optics is suitable for military application and communications, where signal quality and security of data transmission are important. The increased interest of the military in this technology caused the development of stronger fibers, tactical cables and high quality components. It was also applied in more varied areas such as hydrophones for seismic and SONAR, aircrafts, submarines and other underwater applications. Medical Fiber optic are used as light guides, imaging tools and as lasers for surgeries. Another popular use of fiber-optic cable is in an endoscope, which is a diagnostic instrument that enables users to see through small holes in the body. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures. Fiber optics is also used in bronchoscopes and laparoscopes. All versions of endoscopes look like a long thin tube, with a lens or camera at one end through which light is emitted from the bundle of optical fibers banded together inside the enclosure. Mechanical or Industrial Industrial endoscopes also called a borescope or fiberscope, enables the user to observe areas that are difficult to reach or see under normal circumstances, such as jet engine interiors, inspecting mechanical welds in pipes and engines, inspecting space shuttles and rockets. Inspection of sewer lines and pipes. Networking Fiber optic is used to connect servers and users in a variety of network settings. It increases the speed, quality and accuracy of data transmission. Computer and Internet technology has improved due to the enhanced transmission of digital signals through optical fibers. Industrial/Commercial Fiber optics are used for imaging in areas which are difficult to reach. It is also used in wiring where electromagnetic interference is an problem. It gets used often as sensory devices to make temperature, pressure and other measurements as well as in the wiring of motorcars and in industrial settings. Spectroscopy Optical fiber bundles are used to transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance which cannot be placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyse its composition. A spectrometer analyses substances by bouncing light off of and through them. By using optical fibers, a spectrometer can be used to study objects that are too large to fit inside, or gasses, or reactions which occur in pressure vessels Broadcast/CATV/Cable Television Broadcast or cable companies use fiber optic cables for wiring CATV, HDTV, internet, video and other applications. Usage of fiber-optic cables in the cable-television industry began in 1976 and quickly spread because of the superiority of fiber optic cable over traditional coaxial cable. Fiber optic systems became less expensive and capable of transmitting clearer signals further away from the source signal. It also reduced signal losses and decreased the number of amplifiers required for each customer. Fiber optic cable allows cable providers to offer better service, because only one optical line is needed for every  ± 500 households. Lighting and Imaging Fiber optic cables are used for lighting and imaging and as sensors to measure and monitor a vast range of variables. It is also used in research, development and testing in the medical, technological and industrial fields. Fiber optics are used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs to shine on a target without a clear line-of-sight path. In some buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building. Optical fiber illumination is also used for decorative applications, including signs, art and artificial Christmas trees. Optical fiber is an essential part of the light-transmitting concrete building product, LiTraCon which is a translucent concrete building material. Conclusion With the introduction of highly transparent fiber-optic cable in the 1970s, very high-frequency laser signals now carry phenomenal loads of telephone conversations and data across the country and around the world. From surgical procedures to worldwide communication via the internet, fiber optic has revolutionised our world. Fiber optics has made important contributions to the medical field, especially with regards to surgery. One of the most useful characteristics of optical fibers is their ability to enter the minute passageways and hard-to-reach areas of the human body. But perhaps the greatest contribution of the 20th century is the combination of fiber optics and electronics to transformed telecommunications. References / Bibliography Why is fiber optics importany http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312432/lessons_part-04.html http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=3706

Free African Americans Essay

The Antebellum period had a huge impact on the free African American people. The Antebellum period is the time that is pre-Civil War and post-War of 1812. The United States was expanding to a more powerful nation and slavery was the biggest industry in their economy. During this period of time, African Americans had to deal with many obstacles/adversities as free blacks in all regions of the United States. The regions known as, in the northern, upper south, deep south, and far west regions of the United States was where the free African American encountered different and similar situations and experiences. Throughout history the north always was known as the first region that freed slaves. The northern states didn’t us the same economic methods as the southern states and the far west. They adopted a new way of making money. According to The African American Odyssey, â€Å"Between 1860, a market revolution transformed the north into a modern industrial society. † This new method changed economy for the north until present day. This was a new age of industry and the production of factories. Slavery was not needed as much as the southern states where they had good sun to cultivate and profit from crops such as cotton. Even though this new method lightened the idea of slavery in the north, the freedom for blacks was still limited. Whites did not want to deal with blacks so they enforced new black laws in which resulted in the segregation of school, communities and any other public uses. Free black men had limited voting rights where they barely had any rights to vote. Most of all these black laws impacted the employment level to a low gradient for the free blacks in the north. This battle for employment had many negative impacts on free Black’s ways of life. Families were tarnished under the pressure of providing for their families with the scarcity of jobs. They enforced fugitive slave law where the white slave masters can hunt and recapture runaway slaves from the south. This made life difficult and filled the free blacks with fear because they were more prone to be wrongfully enslaved. Like the south the whites did not want to deal with blacks whatsoever. Irish immigrants were taking all the jobs away from the blacks many blacks had unskilled jobs such as being barbers and shoemakers. The free African American upper south region did have similar experiences as the north but much more were different. Though they shared similar churches family businesses and fraternities the upper south was still separated by the idea of slavery and the different economic methods. The impact of slavery created different communities. The free blacks in the north lived with other free Blacks while in the upper south; the free Blacks lived with slaves. The fugitive slave laws had a bigger impact on the upper south than the north. The free black was definitely more prone to be enslaves. Many sheriffs would harass and arrest free blacks randomly on profiling them as runaway slaves. They did have a tool known as free papers that was proof for their freedom. But these papers were useless most of the time because they constantly had to be renewed. These free papers impacted the everyday life of African Americans because they had to make sure that their papers weren’t stolen, lost, or tarnished. The free Blacks had fewer freedoms. They could not vote at all and they had problems going outside at night. They could not congregate in groups and had no rights to bear arms. Life as a free Black person was tougher than the north because of the low employment rates downgraded again due to the Irish immigrants taking their jobs. Their jobs were different during the antebellum period. Many people were maids and servants and washers. Upper south institutions where tarnished and almost did not exist. Black churches were overran by white ministries and left the black ministers with no opportunities to practice on their careers. Schools were almost absent. They were low funded whereas many blacks in the upper south were left uneducated. There were no schools and no jobs which gave success to the whites on preventing the advancement of the free blacks. Unlike the north and the upper south, the Deep South barely had any free blacks despite the fact that the population of African Americans in the Deep South was enormous. There were many incidents of racial mixing with slave owners and the female slaves. Diversity was there but slavery still kept their children enslaved. They usually had a choice to buy their way out of slavery. Many of the free slaves did not have their own separate identity from the white slave owners. Many of the free blacks were just like the whites. They were accepted in the churches. Many wealthy free blacks were educated due to the establishment of private schools. Unlike the north and the Upper South, they had better skilled jobs such as carpentry and tailors. Many whites began to overlook the success of the free African American In the Deep South and made it even more impossible to live. Unlike the North, Upper South, and the Deep South, the Far West absolutely did not want anything to do with free Blacks. The black laws in the Far West were made to ban all free Blacks from settling in their region. The Gold Rush of 1849 resulted in the migration of many White and free Black men to settle out west in states like California and Oregon. The Far west was known to be more multicultural and have multicultural communities. Many blacks had the same jobs of that the free Blacks from the regions had except for the gold mining. Many Blacks prospered from gold. Slavery was a huge propaganda in the upper south and the whole south in general. It was a reality that all African American whether free or enslaved could not avoid. The northern states were gradually enhancing their advancement in the idea of acceptance and coexistence with the Whites in the US. The north had at least a bit of a head start for the search of equality in the U. S. The conditions of living might have been similar and different in many ways but this time all came to an end once the fugitive slave laws were enhanced. Many free African Blacks were enslaved and wrongfully accused to be slaves. The new laws were undisputed and changed the Blacks’ idea of freedom and fight for equality Work Cited Hine D, The African American Odyssey (2011). Combined Volume, 5th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

The Broken Spears by Miguel Leon-Portilla

In the book originally written by Miguel Leon-Portilla, mirroring the event way back in 1519 when Hernan Cortes sailed from Cuba to Mexico and entered the capital of the Aztecs, there were accounts that he gathered from the basic viewpoint of the Aztec tribe. ‘The Broken Spears’ talks about the conquest of Cortes, although it dates back ten years before his arrival in the east coast of Mexico, in a place called Tenochtitlan. From the voices of the tribes, there was defeat and destruction with the arrival of the Spaniards†¦ years after they saw eight omens that, for them, were warnings by the gods on the end of the world.Main Body They first heard the invasion from a common man who reported to King Motecuhzoma: â€Å"Our lord and king, forgive my boldness. When I went to the shores of the great sea, there was a mountain or small mountain floating in the midst of the water, moving here and there without touching the shore† (13). Moctezuma, then, sent people to inspect, and when he received word on the beings that appeared on the shores of his land, he was terrified and was sure that this was the god Quetzalcoatl, who had come back from his journey.Thus, he sent gifts of turquoise and gold to the Spaniards to pay homage to the returning gods. When Cortes recognized this, he frightened the messengers by firing off a canon, and then ordered them to fight in combat to prove their bravery. Cortes announced that he wanted to see Moctezuma. When Cortes, together with hundreds of soldiers, arrived at Tenochtitlan, King Motecuhzoma told Cortes: â€Å"Our lord, you are weary / The journey has tired you, but now you have arrived on the earth / You have come to your city, Mexico / You have come here to sit on your throne, to sit under its canopy† (63).Motecuhzoma was frightened and even thought of escaping, which led him to offer human sacrifices with the coming of the gods, against the advice of his counselors, and to the disdain of the Spani ards. He held a meeting with his nephew Cacama, his brother Cuitlahuac, as well as the other lords and leaders of the tribes on whether or not they should open their doors to the new arrivals in their land. In the end, Motecuhzoma decided to make friends with the Spaniards, and it led to the destruction of his throne, land, wealth, and his people.It is evident that this book should be required for Latin-American Studies, since it gives a very detailed description of the events. Most of the materials used are on the side of the Spaniards. To present a material that would reveal the side of the Aztecs, and how they viewed the event, would be very helpful because it will dramatize how the Aztecs took the invasion in the light of their beliefs, their culture, and their tradition. The style of writing is not really biased.In fact, more of the negatives could be drawn on the description of their king, Motecuhzoma—what his weaknesses were, and which mistakes made him lose his throne and his land. The Spaniards, however, were taken as greed, ruthless men who craved for gold and treasures. It would be best to include this book in Latin-American Studies, but together with the other versions that were written on the side of the Spaniards. This would paint the picture from all sides†¦ for a good sense of balance. Conclusion The story is presented more as a work of literature, with the use of imagery and figures of speech.Having been arranged in chronological order, it presents history from the side and beliefs of the ancient Aztecs. It is well written and easy to understand, which ends up being really fascinating because of the descriptions of things that would relay how ancient human beings view things and people, which they have not seen in the past. Having used a constricted point of view, though, it should be regarded more as literature than as history. Works Cited Leon-Portilla, Miguel. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Bosto n, MA: Beacon Press.

“What Were the Major Reasons for the Creation of the State of Israel Essays

â€Å"What Were the Major Reasons for the Creation of the State of Israel Essays â€Å"What Were the Major Reasons for the Creation of the State of Israel Essay â€Å"What Were the Major Reasons for the Creation of the State of Israel Essay The state of Israel emerged on May 15, 1948. It was the first Jewish state to be established in nearly 2,000 years and was the culmination of efforts by the Jews to secure a homeland for themselves.This paper will explore the major reasons for its creation. It will be shown to be a long enduring quest that has biblical origins. Subsequently both biblical history and geography will be worthy of mention as they are integral to the question I will furthermore suggest that the Jewish belief from the bible forms a basis for motivation for the creation of a state. Allied with this belief is the persecution sufferred by Jews when they dispersed worldwide during exile.This persecution, they felt, could end if they were able to realise a state of their own, whereby they would be able to govern and protect themselves from others who would persecute them. However, the bible and events thousands of years ago have been ‘stepping stones’ in the outcome of 1948 . Accordingly, I will concentrate on the more recent ‘stepping stones’ that facilitated the creation of the Israel state. Some of the areas that have been selected include the Zionist Movement, World War One, World War Two and myriad of politics that came to the fore during this period.In particular I will discuss the Balfour Declaration and its effect on the situation, and comment on whether it was a turning point in the Zionist quest for the creation of the state of Israel. 2 Two more points are worthy of mention. Firstly, this paper does not intend to debate or suggest an Arab versus Israel, Jew versus Muslim situation even though their religions are different and and are a factor. Secondly, it is not a debate on the Palestinian claim for the land in question.It is rather an exploration on ‘why’ Jews sought this area of land and the subsequent chain of events whereby this was successfully realised in 1948. GEOGRAPHICAL, BIBLICAL AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The area of Israel, formerly Palestine, is at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea and is bounded by Lebanon in the north, to the north east by Syria, to the east and south east by Jordan and to the south west by Egypt. To the west is the Mediterranean Sea. Its total area is about 23,000 square kilometres (Harper 1986, p. 4) This particular area, as one of the oldest recorded in mankind’s civilisation has experienced numerous occupations. However, this situation sees two main ‘claimants’ to the land. The Palestinian claim is simple; they believe they were first inhabitants of the land descending from the ancient tribes of the Philistines and Canaanites. They argue the land is theirs perhaps much the same as the French regard France as their country, for example. The Jewish claim is not as straight forward. It has a complex historical and biblical argument. On the religious level, the Jews believe that God promised Palestine to them. The Book of Genesis in th e bible’s Old Testament records that Abraham, the father of the Jews, was told by God â€Å"the whole land of Canaan , where you are now an alien, I will give as an everlasting possession to you and your descendants after you†. (Harper, 1986 p. 16) The Jews claim their right to this land originates directly from the bible. Historically, the Jewish claim to Palestine rests on Jewish habitation, there from about 1300 B. C. hen the tribes of Israel (after initial exile from there due to famine) escaped under Moses’ leadership from Egypt, where they were enslaved, entered and conquered Palestine from the Canaanites, Philistines and other tribes living there. This occupation lasted some 700 years. From then on there was a series of occupations such as Romans, Persians and Turks. (Cattan, H. , 1971 p. 148) It should be mentioned at this stage, religion plays an important role in the situation. Palestine is the Holy Land of three of the world’s major religions Islam, Judaism and Christianity.They all have significant historical and religious sites in this region. (Harper, 1986, p. 17) The biblical claim, supported by the historical claim by the Jews, is at the heart of the major reasons for the creation of the state of Israel. Its creation was based on the belief by Jews that the land was promised to them by God. Even though there has been a series of ‘take overs’ and occupations by others in this area and the occurrence of numerous ‘persecutions’ of Jews (which will be commented on later 4 n greater detail) worldwide since, causing other reasons for Jews to seek refuge in a homeland of their own, the Biblical reasons should not be underestimated as a major factor for the state of Israel being realised in the first place. It was after Jewish exile and disaspora thereafter worldwide and the subsequent ramifications of this that caused renewed motivation for the creation of the Jewish state. One such example came i n the form of Zionism. ZIONISM Since the abovementioned exile, the Jews experienced a broad disaspora and settled in numerous parts of the world, notably Europe and the United States.There had been many persecutions of the Jews during this period. In particular, this occurred during the nineteenth century in Russia and eastern Europe, where there were many incidents of violence. These events caused a political movement called Zionism to emerge. This was the earliest organised claim by the Jews to Palestine and commenced in 1897. Zionism’s founder was an Hungarian Jew, Theodor Herzl. He believed strongly that anti-Semitism would occur in any nation which contained Jews.It is important to add that at this stage of world history many parts were being divided up into smaller individual states. This gave an independance from previous rulers and importantly gave an opportunity to manage and protect affairs. This development gives rise to a major reason for the state of Isreal being formed. If a state was created for the Jews in which to live, they could govern independantly and 5 therefore provide an opportunity to defend and protect themselves from persecutors. Without its creation, they reasoned, the persecution would simply continue.In 1897, Herzl led the first Zionist congress whereby the motivation was harnessed in the form of a programme which preferred the ideal of the establishment of a publicly and legally secured home in Palestine for the Jewish people. At first though, other sites for the Jewish people were considered; in Africa and South America. These were resisted as the Zionists realised the emotional attraction of Palestine could be a powerful force if harnessed to a political ideology. This period was important in that it was a re-awakening for many Jews unhappy with the way they had been treated.The movement gradually gained strength and momentum and organisation and created a significant wave of Jewish emigration back into Palestine. The Je ws set up many settlements on land purchased from absentee Arab landlords. Much of the money needed was funded by the increasingly powerful Zionist Movement. At the start of this period, Palestine had almost 500,000 Arabs living there compared to the 50,000 Jews. By 1914, 60,000 Jews had emigrated there, purchasing some 100,000 acres of Palestinian land. (Barker, 1980 p. 9)In the chronology of events this period displays the emergence of the Zionists as a vital one in re-establishing the ideals of the Jews and overtly making things happen. This re-awakening caused the ‘ball’ to begin rolling. However, it was World War One that transformed the Zionist prospects for the foundation it had laid. 6 WORLD WAR ONE Palestine was under the control of the Turkish Ottoman Empire and had been so for a considerable time. The Zionists had appealed to the Turks ideas of returning to Palestine which was refused. (Harper, 1986 p. 4). The British however were not so unsympathetic and off erred a small area in the African Continent. Even though this offer to the Zionists was refused, it is an important event in so much as it was an overt offer by the British and a sign of sympathy and understanding in the Zionist quest. The onset of World War One saw an interesting situation develop. When Turkey joined Germany and Austria against Britain, France and Russia, its defeat was expected to bring about the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and thus end Turkish domination of Palestine.This had important ramifications for Zionists, who supported the British, as it would further enhance their chances for their re-establishment in Palestine afterwards. For the Arabs this was important too. They also supported the allies against the Turks, their motivation being the end of the Ottoman rule over them. What soon occurred was to be arguably one of the major and decisive turning points in to the Zionist quest. Before what happened is revealed, an interesting ‘what if’ shou ld be considered ! What if Germany and the Turks had succeeded in World War One thus re-enforcing the Ottoman domination and control of the region?Whilst this can only be 7 speculative at best, one thing is likely the events that occurred due to the victories won during the war would not have been possible had Germany and the Turks won World War One. During World War One, Britain had encouraged the Arab Independence movement but had little intention of giving the Arabs the power they had been promised once the Turks, with invaluable Arab assistance, had been defeated. (Harper, 1986 p. 32) During this period two developments occurred that had important ramifications for both Arabs and Jews.The first was the secret Anglo-French-Russian accord known as the Sykes-Picot Agreement which divided between France and Britain, all of the areas in the region. Arabs recarded this a betrayal by the British, as the region of Palestine came under British control. (Baker, 1986 p. 31) The Zionists b y this time had political roots in Britain. In 1917, thanks to the efforts of Zionist Chaim Weizmann’s lobbying, the British Government issued a document that was to change the course of Middle-Eastern history. In the form of a letter from the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Balfour, a pledge known as the Balfour Declaration was made. THE BALFOUR DECLARATION A TURNING POINT â€Å"His Majesty’s Government views with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country†, so said the pledge made by Lord Balfour on behalf of the British Government.This pledge was eventually approved by its allies and subsequently incorporated in the terms of the Leag ue of Nations Mandate over Palestine, granted to Britain in 1922. This mandate was one of the major turning points in the Zionist quest. It not only had been agreed to by the British, but endorsed by its allies. Furthermore, it had been achieved without any consultation or negotiation with the incumbent inhabitants the Palestinians. The fact that this was done indicates that Britain was prepared to not only implement the mandate but enforce it regardless of any resistance.This mandate then saw a wave of immigration into Palestine by the Jews. However, the mandate was not the only reason for mass migration of Jews. During the 1930’s when Hitler’s persecution of European Jews gathered momentum, Jewish immigration soared dramatically, so much so that workers had 9 risen to a third of total population there. Out of this saw Arab alarm and subsequent hostility between the two occurred. In the middle of this was the British, trapped by the undertaking of the Balfour declara tion on one hand, and the promises made to the Arabs on the other.In the wake of continual violent confrontations between Jewish settlers and Palestinians, the British were increasingly finding the mandate difficult to maintain. In 1939 the British Government issued a White paper that envisaged the creation of a bi-national state of Palestine that limited Jewish immigration. (Cattan, H. 1971 p. 150) This was denounced as a betrayal by the Zionists. In an effort to placate the problem, the British had in so doing, incensed the situation further and violence was experienced.The British, as well, by this time had other more pressing problems in the wake of World War Two. This period also saw the important emergence of a militant aspect of the Jews, which stood apart from the increasing organisation and administration of the Zionists. Instead of immigration slowing down, the opposite occurred. Illegal immigration and settlement was stepped up and mass sabotage and resistance was organis ed or effected by the Zionists. This was a clear indicator that the Zionists, with their ‘foot in the door’ had no ntention of stopping in their quest for the creation of their own state. 10 WORLD WAR TWO During the war there was a general truce between the Zionist and British with the Jews feeling that until Germany was defeated, disruption of the British bases could not be justified. Indeed, during the war years, the British even trained some of the Jewish officers, thereby increasing the Jewish knowledge and ability even further. (Barker, 1980 p. 12) After the war, significant realisations came to the fore that ultimately assisted the Jewish cause. But it came at a huge cost.The systematic murder of six million Jews in the Nazi Germany holocaust caused near universal support for the Zionists’ effort to secure a new, safe future within an independent state. The significance of the holocaust points to another major turning point. The political sympathy and subse quent influence of a powerful United States after the war ensured the debate increased. Furthermore, Britain was not the power it used to be as a consequence of depletion both economically and materially, Britain was more than ever dependent and influenced by the Americans. THE UNITED NATIONSIn the United States a powerful and influential Jewish community mobilised itself to persuade the government to back Zionist ideals. 11 In 1947, the British Government turned to the United Nations for assistance in solving the situation in Palestine. On November 29 the United Nations General Assembly, after strong American pressure by President Truman, voted to partition Palestine into Arab and Jewish states. This plan was eagerly welcomed by Jews but denounced by the Arabs. At the same time the British declared an end to the mandate due to cease May 14, 1948. Barker, 1980 p. 12) The United Nations’ decision was another major turning point. The power and influence of the fledgling United Nations was being tested and of course brought many new countries into the bitter lobbying process that occurred. The dispute had now become the resposibility of many new countries that were part of the UN. THE CREATION OF THE STATE During the period of the United Nations decision and the British mandate withdrawal, both Jew and Arab saw tensions increase between each other. There were many violent uprisings.In one such incident, at the Arab village of Deir Yassin, 254 civilian inhabitants were massacred by the Jews. This along with other events, saw a mass exodus of fearful Palestinians to neighbouring states. By this time the tide had turned. The Zionists had been systematically preparing for war and were well organised and trained. Terrorism was rampant and the British did 12 little to stop violence in the last days of their mandate. In fact, during the British withdrawal of troops, a distinct direction of neutrality was demonstrated.On May 14, 1948, just prior to the last withdr awal of British troops thereby ending the mandate, Ben Gurion read Israel’s Declaration of Independence to a Jewish audience in Tel Aviv. A provisional government was formed which was instantly recognised by two of the emerging superpowers, the United States and Russia. Thereupon the realisation of Jewish dreams had been fulfilled. 13 SUMMARY This paper has discussed the major reasons for the creation of the state of Israel. The quest for statehood and independence has been sought by Jews for nearly 2000 years.Both biblical and historical claims have significance in this discussion and are, I have argued, form a basis of Jewish beliefs for independence. However, it is the series of events that have occurred from the 19th and 20th centuries that real progress has been made in attaining the state of Israel. The ‘stepping stones’ of events have, it has been discussed, all played roles in facilitating the quest. Some have been more important than others. The ‘B alfour Declaration’ in particular was offered as a major turning point in the Zionist quest.So too the Jewish need to create a place so as to protect them from the experiences of persecution. The Jewish origins coupled with the recent events of the 20th century relate to each other and in between the ‘stepping stones’ of incidents have culminated in the outcome of the acquisition of an independant state of Isreal.BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOK REFERENCES: Encyclopaedia Brittanica, 15th Edition, (1982), International Press, New York, U. S. A. , Volume 10 p 886; Volume 1 p 758 Barker, A. J. (1980), Arab Israeli Wars Ian Allan Ltd. , Shepperton, Surrey, England, pp 9 43 Bible (1976), Old Testament American Bible Society, pp 4 88 Bromley, S. (1994), Rethinking Middle East Politics Edited by Polity Press, Cambridge, U. K. pp 6 16 Cattan, H. (1971), The Palestine Problem: The Palestinian viewpoint in the Middle East: a handbook Edited by M. Adams, Great Britain, Anthony Bland Lt d. , pp 146 160 Harper, P. (1986), The Arab Israeli Issue. Wayland Publishers, West Sussex, England, pp 8 43 Mansfield, P. (1992), A History of the Middle East Penguin Books, London, England, pp 1 7 ; pp 85 135 Miller, A. (1988), The Palestinians: the past as prologue Current History, Volume 87, number 526, pp 73 76 ; pp 83- 85

Something new, something old, something personal Essays

Something new, something old, something personal Essays Something new, something old, something personal Essay Something new, something old, something personal Essay The Item I picked for something new Is my Hess Truck Collection. I have been collecting these trucks since I was five years old. They are made and sold once a year by Hess Gas Stations. Hess Gas Stations are on the East Coast. My Grandmother lives In Philadelphia and bought my first truck for me. The trucks are amazingly detailed. Each year is a really unique model with lots of Intricate details. Some of the rare Hess Trucks are from the sasss. I hope to find some of them someday. For my something Old I chose my Marx Train. I have always enjoyed trains. Maybe hats because I have been taking the Amtrak train from Oregon to Philadelphia Pa. Since I was born, sometimes twice a year. I love the history of trains and how they helped open the West. I love the motion on a long train ride (it rocks you to sleep). The views are great and so is the food When you are on a train for a long time you make what my family calls travel friends. There are a lot of people on road trips across the country every day. The company that makes my train, the Marx company no longer exists which makes these trains a little rare. This engine was made in 1926. I definitely would say that my dog Buddy is the most special thing to me besides my family. He is a Golden Retriever and he is eight years old. This breed has a reputation for being really friendly and he really is a good friend. If I am ever feeling down he helps me. He sis good listener. Buddy has some Alpha dog behavior. He feels like he has to be in charge.

Macroeconomics Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Macroeconomics - Term Paper Example The housing market like any other market follows the basic supply and demand laws. Demand means the amount of good consumers demand at a certain price. While supple means the amount of goods the suppliers/ produces are willing to supply at a certain price. Generally when there is a price rise, demand falls and where as supply increases when there is higher price (supply and demand, 2008). But incase of the US housing market there was almost abnormal rise in the prices and then a sudden fall ushered in from 2006 onwards. This was preceded by a stable housing price environment in most parts of the 1990s while an increasing trend was witnessed towards the end of the 1990s. Housing prices rose by a whopping 87% during the period January 2002 to June 2006. While the sudden decline started in 2006 and gathered enormous proportions in the years 2007, 2008 and is still continuing. Housing prices were down by roughly 25% in 2008 third financial quarter in comparison to the peak levels of 2006 . During the middle part of the 1990s governmental regulations in relation to lending norms were relaxed drastically and ensuing regulations followed which made it mandatory for housing loan institution like Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac to increase their share of US mortgages belonging to middle as well as low income families by significant levels. During the era 1999 US federal rules also made it sure that these two institutions which hold a major portion of the US mortgages accepted greater amount of loans but with minimal and in many cases, absolutely no down payment. Almost a similar kind of regulation was passed in the year 1995 in context f bank's landings through which they were made to lend heavily to minority sections of the population in the vicinity of the banks in the process prudent lending mechanisms and evaluation of credit worthiness were overlooked. This was the 'Community Reinvestment Act'. Testimony to the afore mentioned fact Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac's overall shar e of mortgages under their holding went up to 45% in the year 2001 from only 25% in the year 1990. This fact is shown in Fig.2. It is also evident from the figure that how these two institution's share of the outstanding mortgages went up continuously throughout the 1990s and also almost through the 2000s. Fig.2. Outstanding Mortgages and Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac's share of them. Source: Gwartney, et al. Interest rate manipulation During the period between 2002 and 2006 the US Fed ushered in an extended low interest rate phase. As a result of the ensuing low rate scenario there was a huge demand for the houses and consecutively the prices also soared in the sector. Fig.3. 1-Year Treasury Bill Rate & Fed Fund Rate Source: Gwartney, et al. Fig.3. shows that how the fed had kept the interest rate for